Drosophila is a model organism that allows you to carry out research in the human medical and pharmaceutical field. Oogenesis involves 14 phases, from S1 to S14, in which there is regulation mainly by the hormone ecdysone and its active form 20E. To support the growth of the oocyte, yolk proteins and lipoproteins are integrated into the cells thanks to specific receptors: yolkless in the first case and LpR1 and LpR2 in the second case. During maturation, the process of mitochondrial respiratory quiescence (MRQ) occurs, which allows the storage of glycogen in such a way that it can then be used to support embryogenesis. A fundamental process in the maturation of the oocyte is the dumping of the nurse cells, that is the transfer of their content to the oocyte itself through the ring canals, subsequently the nurse cells will undergo cell turnover due to apoptosis, autophagy and phagocytosis. The Drosophila eggshell is composed of 5 layers that are grouped in the vitelline envelope and chorion; among the most important genes for eggshell production, the chorion gene is taken into account. Two clusters of this gene are known: one on the X chromosome and the other on the third chromosome; chorion undergoes an amplification process between the S6-S10 phases by entering an endocycle. Starting with S2, Notch signalling defines two polar cells that secrete Upd, which is the JAK/STAT ligand. The Upd signalling gradient defines 3 types of cells: border cells, stretch cells and centripetal cells. In the posterior end, Gurken also acts, which activates the patterning of the entire body plane. With the sequence of the 14 phases, the egg undergoes an elongation: initially it occurs thanks to the JAK/STAT gradient that induces apical contractions and the expression of AdamTS-A; then the rotation of the egg chamber occurs at S7 and basal contractions at the centre of the egg chamber at S9; finally at S11 the dumping occurs. The last process that is remembered is ovulation and subsequent activation of the egg. Ovulation takes place in two phases: follicle trimming and the follicle rupture; the activity of MMPs is important in the first phase, in which Mmp2, activated by ecdysone’s signalling, is to be taken into account. Equally important are the signalling of octopamine and the ROS species that together with ecdysone act in the ovulation process. In the activation of the egg there are 5 highly preserved phases: in the first place there is a calcium wave at the poles of the egg, followed subsequently by the hardening of the shell; in the next step the meiosis is resumed and completed, since at the beginning of the oogenesis the oocytes were stopped in prophase I; then the modification of maternal mRNAs and maternal proteins occurs through phosphorylation and dephosphorylation; finally a cytoskeletal rearrangement takes place.
La Drosophila è un organismo modello che permette di effettuare approfondimenti in ambito medico e farmaceutico umano. L’oogenesi prevede 14 fasi, da S1 a S14, in cui si ha regolazione principalmente da parte dell’ormone ecdisone e della sua forma attiva 20E. Per sostenere la crescita dell’ovocita vengono integrati nelle cellule vitellogenine e lipoproteine grazie a dei recettori specifici: yolkless nel primo caso e LpR1 e LpR2 nel secondo caso. Durante la maturazione avviene il processo di quiescenza respiratoria mitocondriale (MRQ) che consente lo stoccaggio del glicogeno in modo tale che questo possa essere poi usato per sostenere l’embriogenesi. Un processo fondamentale nella maturazione dell’ovocita è il dumping delle cellule nutrici, cioè il trasferimento del loro contenuto all’ovocita stesso attraverso i canali anulari, successivamente le cellule nutrici andranno incontro a turnover cellulare per apoptosi, autofagia e fagocitosi. Il guscio d’uovo di Drosophila è composto da 5 strati che si raggruppano in involucro vitellino e corion; tra i geni più importanti per la produzione del guscio viene ricordato il gene chorion. Di questo gene si conoscono due cluster: uno sul cromosoma X e l’altro sul terzo cromosoma; chorion subisce un processo di amplificazione tra le fasi S6-S10 entrando in un endociclo. A partire da S2 la segnalazione di Notch definisce due cellule polari che secernono Upd, cioè il ligando di JAK/STAT. Il gradiente di segnalazione Upd definisce 3 tipologie di cellule: cellule di confine, cellule allungate e cellule centripetali. Nella parte posteriore agisce anche Gurken che attiva il patterning dell’intero piano corporeo. Con il susseguirsi delle 14 fasi, l’uovo subisce un allungamento: inizialmente avviene grazie al gradiente JAK/STAT che induce contrazioni apicali e l’espressione di AdamTS-A; successivamente avviene la rotazione della camera dell’uovo a S7 e contrazioni basali al centro della camera dell’uovo a S9; infine a S11 avviene il dumping. L’ultimo processo che viene ricordato è l’ovulazione e la successiva attivazione dell’uovo. L’ovulazione avviene in due fasi: il taglio del follicolo e la rottura del follicolo; nella prima fase è importante l’attività degli MMP, di cui si ricorda Mmp2 che viene attivato dalla segnalazione di ecdisone. Importanti sono anche la segnalazione di octopamina e le specie ROS che insieme all’ecdisone agiscono nel processo di ovulazione. Nell’attivazione dell’uovo si hanno 5 fasi altamente conservate: in primo luogo si ha un’onda di calcio ai poli dell’uovo, seguita successivamente dall’indurimento del guscio; nel passaggio successivo viene ripresa e completata la meiosi, dal momento che all’inizio dell’oogenesi gli ovociti venivano arrestati in profase I; in seguito avviene la modificazione di mRNA materni e proteine materne attraverso fosforilazione e defosforilazione; infine ha luogo un riarrangiamento citoscheletrico.
IL PROCESSO DI GAMETOGENESI IN DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER
GREGORETTI, ALTEA
2024/2025
Abstract
Drosophila is a model organism that allows you to carry out research in the human medical and pharmaceutical field. Oogenesis involves 14 phases, from S1 to S14, in which there is regulation mainly by the hormone ecdysone and its active form 20E. To support the growth of the oocyte, yolk proteins and lipoproteins are integrated into the cells thanks to specific receptors: yolkless in the first case and LpR1 and LpR2 in the second case. During maturation, the process of mitochondrial respiratory quiescence (MRQ) occurs, which allows the storage of glycogen in such a way that it can then be used to support embryogenesis. A fundamental process in the maturation of the oocyte is the dumping of the nurse cells, that is the transfer of their content to the oocyte itself through the ring canals, subsequently the nurse cells will undergo cell turnover due to apoptosis, autophagy and phagocytosis. The Drosophila eggshell is composed of 5 layers that are grouped in the vitelline envelope and chorion; among the most important genes for eggshell production, the chorion gene is taken into account. Two clusters of this gene are known: one on the X chromosome and the other on the third chromosome; chorion undergoes an amplification process between the S6-S10 phases by entering an endocycle. Starting with S2, Notch signalling defines two polar cells that secrete Upd, which is the JAK/STAT ligand. The Upd signalling gradient defines 3 types of cells: border cells, stretch cells and centripetal cells. In the posterior end, Gurken also acts, which activates the patterning of the entire body plane. With the sequence of the 14 phases, the egg undergoes an elongation: initially it occurs thanks to the JAK/STAT gradient that induces apical contractions and the expression of AdamTS-A; then the rotation of the egg chamber occurs at S7 and basal contractions at the centre of the egg chamber at S9; finally at S11 the dumping occurs. The last process that is remembered is ovulation and subsequent activation of the egg. Ovulation takes place in two phases: follicle trimming and the follicle rupture; the activity of MMPs is important in the first phase, in which Mmp2, activated by ecdysone’s signalling, is to be taken into account. Equally important are the signalling of octopamine and the ROS species that together with ecdysone act in the ovulation process. In the activation of the egg there are 5 highly preserved phases: in the first place there is a calcium wave at the poles of the egg, followed subsequently by the hardening of the shell; in the next step the meiosis is resumed and completed, since at the beginning of the oogenesis the oocytes were stopped in prophase I; then the modification of maternal mRNAs and maternal proteins occurs through phosphorylation and dephosphorylation; finally a cytoskeletal rearrangement takes place.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12075/23411